Thomas and across the entire island of St. Croix NRCS, The effects of drought conditions are reflected relatively quickly in regional agriculture. The majority of crops in the U. Caribbean are not irrigated and therefore rely heavily on rainfall for moisture. NRCS-recommended practices include the establishment of cover crops for improved water infiltration, the installation of efficient irrigation systems for effective water resource use, and the development of riparian buffers to reduce chemical and nutrient runoff when lands are bared by drought.
The Scientific Drought Committee of Puerto Rico works to advise the local government regarding recommended strategies for water conservation as drought conditions progress. Further research on drought-tolerant crops will help local producers adapt to more frequent drought events and decreased rainfall.
Correlating drought conservation practices and drought vulnerability in a tropical agricultural system: Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, v. Access here. Gould, W. Caribbean Regional Climate Sub Hub assessment of climate change vulnerability and adaptation and mitigation strategies: United States Department of Agriculture, pp.
Archibald, J. Bowden, L. Carrubba, W. Crespo, S. Fain, G. Goulbourne, E. Harmsen, E. Holupchinski, A. Khalyani, J. Kossin, A. Leinberger, V. Marrero-Santiago, O. McGinley, P. Morell, M. A number of studies report increased ROS accumulation and oxidative stress in plants under drought stress [ 85 , 86 ]. Photosynthetic electron transport is, however, maintained at a relatively higher rate in the stressed leaves in comparison to the accentuated reduction in the CO 2 fixation rate [ 87 ].
This imbalance between the electron transport and CO 2 fixation rates results in an accentuated reduction of the electron transport chain and the transfer of electrons to O 2 through the Mehler reaction [ 88 ]. The photorespiratory pathway is also enhanced under drought stress, especially when the oxygenation of ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate is maximal due to limited CO 2 fixation [ 90 ]. Thus, O 2 -dependent electron flow and photorespiration can be considered common mechanisms that plants employ to protect the photosynthetic electron transport chain components from photodamage during water deficit.
In a number of plant species, an increased formation of ROS, lipid peroxidation and protein modification have been observed under water deficit conditions [ 92 - 94 ]. The following the sequence of events occurs in plant tissues subjected to such conditions: 1 increased production of ROS and oxidised target molecules; 2 increased expression of genes for antioxidant functions; and 3 increased the levels of non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidants, resulting in tolerance to drought stress [ 95 ].
Drought stress enhances the de novo synthesis of some antioxidative enzymes to overcome the increase in oxidative stress. An increase in the activity of antioxidative enzymes has been reported in a number of plant species submitted to drought stress, enhancing the capacity of the antioxidative system to scavenge ROS and thereby suppressing the level of lipid peroxidation under drought conditions [ 93 , 96 , 97 ].
Additionally, the increase in the activity of antioxidative enzymes and antioxidant content under water deficit conditions appears to be extremely variable among different plant species and even cultivars of the same species. Thus, comparative studies using drought-tolerant and drought-sensitive genotypes demonstrate greater antioxidant capacity in tolerant genotypes. In one study, among five mulberry cultivars subjected to drought, two had efficient antioxidative characteristics that could provide better protection against oxidative stress in leaves under water-limited conditions [ 98 ].
It has also been reported that the drought-acclimated leaves of wheat plants exhibited a systematic increase in the APX and CAT activities and the maintenance of an adequate ascorbate redox pool through the efficient functioning of the APX enzyme. As a result, lesser membrane damage was found in the drought-acclimated plants [ 94 , ]. The drought response of a plant species also depends on the duration and severity of the drought period.
SOD and CAT activities are reported to have increased in response to severe water deficit in mature leaves of two clones of Populus deltoids x nigra [ ]. Taken together, these findings provide additional evidence that the antioxidative system plays a key role in the process of plant acclimation to drought stress.
Thus, greater protection from drought-induced oxidative damage may, at least in part, be involved in tolerance to water deficit. According to Chapman [ ], there are an estimated , plant species worldwide Magnoliophyta, gymnosperms, ferns, allies and Bryophyta. Despite their occurrence on all continents, biodiversity and distribution is quite variable even within a few kilometres. From an ecologic standpoint, the occurrence of a specific plant species in an area depends on the combination of three factors:.
Chance — the possibility of a propagule reaching and establishing itself in a certain location;. History — the current abundance of a species is probably correlated with its abundance in the near past;. Necessity — demands for growth, competence for competition and interactions with other organisms; Coexistence with other plants depends on the complexity of the environment in terms of fertility, sunlight and water availability and on how strongly the plant can withstand the action of competitors, herbivores, parasites, etc.
Among these needs, water availability can be considered the most influential and even shapes the phytophysiognomy of some ecosystems. According to Puig [ ], while drought has little influence in a tropical rain forest where precipitation surpasses evapotranspiration more than ten months per year , water regime variability in a tropical dry forest is the major environmental factor exerting an influence on the ecological processes that regulate its vegetation maintenance and distribution [ ].
On the ecosystem level, a drought event can be i permanent — in regions where a desert climate predominates; ii seasonal — as observed in semi-arid regions; iii irregular or variable — as occurs in regions with humid or sub-humid climates this normally takes place in limited areas and the return of drought is unpredictable ; or iv invisible or green drought — as occurs when precipitation is not interrupted, but lesser than evapotranspiration, causing a regional moisture imbalance.
In the latter case, there is a drop in relative air humidity, leading to a reduction in moisture content in the soil. Moisture is evaporated into the atmosphere and comes back as rainfall, but not enough to increase the moisture content in the soil. This is considered the worst kind of drought due to the fact that is difficult to perceive. Excessive insolation, fire, shade, wind, herbivory, nutrient availability and water availability are factors that force plants to exhibit different kinds of adaptation to overcome the constraints to their survival and establishment.
In some cases, plant species from unrelated taxonomical groups use very similar strategies, resulting in a phenomenon denominated convergent evolution. Cummins [ ] proposed a plant classification system based on similar roles or analogous processes in the ecosystem.
This classification allows us to simplify the biodiversity in a given location and correlate it with that of another location, even without taxonomic relatedness among the species found [ ]. Consequently, knowledge on how an assemblage of plants organises itself to occupy all available niches under given environmental conditions has continually increased.
The three general mechanisms used by plants to cope with drought [ avoidance dormancy in the dry season , delay through increased water uptake and reduced water loss and physiological tolerance maintenance of plant functioning with low cell water content ] are closely linked to the functional traits of the species [ ] Table 2. Drought is a deviation from normal climatic conditions in which there is a lack of precipitation over an extended period and the resulting water shortage has negative implications [ ].
Drought differs from aridity, which is a normal condition of a severe lack of water availability in a specific region.
In recent decades, the planet has witnessed intense climate changes due to global warming. Extreme climatic events, such as tornados, hurricanes, floods, blizzards and drought, have become more frequent and intense. Some annual plant events, such as flowering, fruiting and re-sprouting, follow a specific timing, which is denominated phenology. Global warming can affect this timing and its consequences can affect water supplies, pollination and the overall functioning of natural and agricultural ecosystems.
This situation suggests a bleak future for mankind and nature, as all organisms will face substantial disturbances in their environment, possibly beyond their capacity for resistance and resilience. Resistance is the ability of a system to maintain its structure and functioning after a disturbance and resilience is the ability to re-establish equilibrium after it has been disrupted [ ].
A given plant species can either escape from or acclimate to adverse environmental conditions, which can change in space and time. When a specific genotype exteriorises different phenotypes under different conditions, it is considered to have adequate phenotypic plasticity.
Changes in the partitioning of resources can be the result of different strategies under different selection pressures. However, this phenotypic plasticity is quite limited due both the physiological costs and ontogenetic drift [ , ].
The following are the most detectable features of global warming: 1 its influence on the perception of plants regarding the seasons the advance of biological spring and the delay in biological winter have been observed and such changes have a direct effect on the reproductive events of flowering and fructification, which can affect the dynamics of plant populations and communities [ - ]; 2 alterations in the floristic composition and phytosociology of plant communities due to changes in the seedling mortality rate; 3 the occurrence of a climate-induced shift in the range of species, which can force the interaction of plants with those from which they were formerly spatially separated [ ]; and 4 increased biological plant invasions, as global warming can modify the dynamics and climate of new environments, making them suitable for invasion [ , ].
Despite the volume of studies on plant responses to global warming, a great deal of uncertainty remains. After an extensive survey of plant phenology databases for long-term observations and short-term warming experiments involving species, Wolkovich et al.
Thus, more in-depth studies are needed to help predict the effects of global warming on plant communities in the near future and develop strategies to mitigate these effects. Licensee IntechOpen. This chapter is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 3. Help us write another book on this subject and reach those readers.
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Built by scientists, for scientists. Our readership spans scientists, professors, researchers, librarians, and students, as well as business professionals. Downloaded: Introduction Climate-change scenarios around the world indicate that many areas of the globe will increase in aridity.
Water relations and influence on plant growth and development Water is attracted to soil pores predominantly due to its attraction to other surfaces adhesion and capillarity. Aspects of chlorophyll a florescence transient: Kielmeyera rugosa Choisy as case study The genus Kielmeyera belongs to the family Clusiaceae Guttiferae , subfamily Kielmeyeroideae, and is endemic to South America.
Table 1. Living with oxygen The production of reactive oxygen species ROS is an unavoidable consequence of life with oxygen. Chemistry of ROS Much of the behaviour of molecular oxygen or dioxygen and its partially reduced species derive from their reduction potentials and molecular orbital structures.
Antioxidative system To mitigate oxidative harm from ROS, plants possess a complex antioxidative system that involves both non-enzymatic and enzymatic antioxidant defences. Peroxidases and enzymes regenerating active forms of ascorbate and glutathione Peroxidases constitute a class of enzymes in the tissues of animals, plants and microorganisms and catalyse the oxidoreduction between hydrogen peroxide and different reductants.
ROS production and scavenging in drought-stressed plants The root system is the first plant organ to detect a reduction in the water supply.
Formation of functional groups under natural cycles Excessive insolation, fire, shade, wind, herbivory, nutrient availability and water availability are factors that force plants to exhibit different kinds of adaptation to overcome the constraints to their survival and establishment. Functional trait Role Some co-existing species Source Life form Species can avoid drought remaining as seed during dry season Therophytes Gomphrena aff.
Euphorbiaceae Cuphea ericoides Cham. Rubiaceae Amasonia campestris L. Verbenaceae Mendes [] Specific leaf area This is an index of sclerophylly. Prunus ilicifolia Nutt. Rosaceae Ceanothus oliganthus var.
Asteraceae Ackerly et al. Capparaceae Maytenus rigida Mart. Celastraceae Licania rigida Benth. Chysobalanaceae Ximenia americana L. Euphorbiaceae Combretum leprosum Mart. Combretaceae Pseudobombax marginatum A.
Robyns Bombacaceae Barbosa et al. Anogeissus latifolia Roxb. Ex DC Wall. Combretaceae Soymida febrifuga Roxb. Meliaceae Acacia catechu L. Rutaceae Kushwaha et al. Frodin Araliaceae Miconia ferruginata DC. Melastomataceae Roupala Montana Aubl. Proteaceae Ouratea hexasperma St. Vochysiaceae Dalbergia miscolobium Benth.
Fabaceae Kielmeyera coriacea Mart. Clusiaceae Franco et al. Table 2. Some functional traits associated to drought tolerance in plants under dry conditions. Climate change: New challenge for plants Drought is a deviation from normal climatic conditions in which there is a lack of precipitation over an extended period and the resulting water shortage has negative implications [ ].
More Print chapter. How to cite and reference Link to this chapter Copy to clipboard. In the recent past, research has been started to improve the stress tolerance in the plants by using the conventional and molecular breeding approaches Farooq et al. Major management strategies have been discussed below in detail.
Plant breeding using typical old techniques has proved very handy for the identification of stress-tolerant genetic traits in various crops and cultivars and the transfer of those traits into the cultivars having good agronomic performance Ashraf, A significant progress has been made by the international research institutes to develop cultivars with noticeable drought tolerance Table 4.
One good example is the breeding effort started by CIMMYT for improving the tolerance in the maize against drought and common diseases. These hybrids were found best under drought in terms of overall plant growth and the economic yield. Similarly, IITA has also developed 16 inbred lines of maize having a certain degree of tolerance against drought Badu-Apraku and Yallou, TABLE 4.
Drought tolerant cultivars of some important field crops developed by different research institutes through conventional breeding. At CIMMYT, a diploid wild relative of bread wheat Aegilops tauschii was crossed with a tetraploid Triticum turgidum to produce a hexaploid having a significant tolerance against major abiotic stresses Valkoun, Similar efforts are also in progress in IRRI, Philippines for the development of drought tolerant rice cultivars using classic breeding approaches.
It will further improve the adoption of direct-seeded rice. An easiest approach to develop heat tolerant cultivars is the examination of the breeding material under the hot target conditions and identification of the lines showing better performance Ehlers and Hall, Different morpho-physiological traits are used as indicators of heat tolerance in identifying better performing varieties Table 5.
In general, the tolerance of the plant to heat stress is characterized by minimal damage to photosynthetic machinery and increased biosynthesis of the protective compounds Bita and Gerats, Photosynthesis and reproductive phase of plant growth are highly sensitive to high temperature stress.
So, a heat tolerant variety in this regard should have a better photosynthetic rate, membrane thermo stability and fruit setting under high temperature Nagarajan et al.
Some other indirect parameters used for selection include, the grain filling duration and grain weight Yang et al. Setimela et al.
Although it is an easy criteria, its effectiveness for wide range of crops is yet questionable. Conventional breeding is a nice approach, however, genetic variation in the existing germplasm is very limited and it takes long time to screen and test the existing genotypes before starting the breeding programs.
Drought tolerance in the plants is a complex phenomenon being controlled by a large number of minor genes and loci on chromosomes having those genes called as QTL Mohammadi et al. The Exploitation of the genetic variation among the existing cultivars for stress tolerance can be either done by natural selection under stressful environment or by QTLs mapping followed by marker assisted selection approach Ashraf et al.
Mapping of the QTLs basically helps in the assessment of total number of genes, their location and action pattern. A major problem associated with the selection of a proper QTL for the drought tolerance is a high degree interaction between QTL and environment Tuberosa and Salvi, Therefore, once a QTL is identified for drought tolerance, isogenization is mandatory for its proper characterization Salvi and Tuberosa, Mapping of the QTLs for the traits related to drought tolerance has been done in variety of crop species as enlisted in earlier reviews Ashraf, ; Farooq et al.
In cotton, a set of 33 QTLs was identified under water shortage conditions by using F 3 families of a cross between Gossypium barbadence and Gossypium hirsutum Saranga et al. Out of those 33 QTLs, five were related to physiological traits, 11 to plant productivity and 17 to fiber quality.
A large number of QTLs associated with drought tolerance has also been identified in rice Lafitte et al. Another study identified 36 related to root growth and five related to osmotic adjustment in rice Zhang et al. For instance, Uga et al.
After the identification of the proper QTLs, the next important part is their manipulation in order to develop drought tolerant cultivars. Steele et al. Five fragments on different chromosomes were selected for introgression. The introgression lines developed by the marker assisted back crossing of the identified QTLs in the drought sensitive variety resulted in improved yield and better drought tolerance Serraj et al.
The stay green character under water limiting condition in sorghum was also improved by this approach Harris et al. All these studies clearly show that QTL mapping and marker assisted breeding can play a vital role in improving the crop tolerance against drought stress. Although the achievements made so far seems simple, correct identification of the QTLs and proper application of marker assisted techniques is a complicated and expensive task. Modern breeding approaches involving QTL mapping have not been used extensively for heat stress tolerance.
The QTLs related to different traits involved in heat tolerance such as grain filling duration and leaf senescence have been identified in wheat Mason et al.
Farooq et al. The QTLs related to grain filling duration in wheat under high temperature were identified on chromosome number 1B and 5A Yang et al. A wide range of markers associated with the QTLs of heat tolerance has been identified, however, their actual role in marker assisted selection is very limited Kumar et al. However, the simple sequence repeat markers linked with different heat tolerance characters were used recently in marker assisted selection among 25 wheat genotypes for heat tolerance Sadat et al.
The research work for identifying markers linked to heat tolerance has great scope and requires more effort. Transgenic approaches involve modifications in the qualitative as well as the quantitative traits through transfer of desired genes Ashraf, The major emphasis has been on the engineering of the genes which encode growth regulators, compatible solutes, and antioxidants involved in stress tolerance.
The genes encoding two enzymes choline mono oxygenase and beta aldehyde dehydrogenase responsible for glycine betaine expression in higher plants have been successfully engineered to develop drought tolerant crops Zhang et al. An inbred line of maize DH has also been produced by transferring a beta gene from Escherichia coli resulting in improved glycine betaine production and ultimately better drought tolerance Quan et al.
Similarly, the genes encoding the enzyme involved in the biosynthesis of another important osmolyte, proline, have been engineered in various crops including, soybean [ Glycine max L. Ronde et al. Recently, Kudo et al. Similarly, a large number of genes related to NAC family have been identified for stress tolerance in sugarcane Ramaswamy et al.
Different types of the antioxidants are produced by the plants which play an important role in improving tolerance against the oxidative damage Sunkar et al. Genes involved in the production and expression of SOD has been engineered and to produce drought tolerant transgenic alfalfa, potato and rice Perl et al.
Similarly, transgenic tobacco has also been produced showing the over expression of ascorbate peroxidase and mono dehydro-ascorbate reductase Eltayeb et al. Accumulation of the LEA proteins also plays an important role in drought tolerance Gosal et al. The LEA proteins help plants in maintaining the cell membrane structure and ionic balance under drought stress Browne et al.
In the recent years, efforts have been put forth to engineer the genes involved in the production of LEA proteins. Transgenic lines of wheat, sorghum, and rice have been developed by transferring such genes to improve drought tolerance Xu et al.
The drought tolerance capacity of transgenic crops depends on the crop growth stage and intensity of stress Reddy et al. Further research is required to produce more transgenic crops with higher yield potential. Significant progress has also been made in identification of the genes involved in various mechanisms of heat tolerance and their manipulation using various transgenic approaches Zhang et al.
Genetic manipulations for over-expression of SOD under heat stress has proved successful Sairam and Tyagi, A transgenic tobacco plant showing a better photosynthetic activity under heat stress has been produced by alteration of the chloroplast membranes Murakami et al. An enhanced tolerance against high temperature was reported in tobacco by the transfer of a gene Dnak1 Ono et al. The transgenic plants having better production of glycine betaine due to transfer a gene BADH showed more tolerance to heat stress Yang et al.
The improved tolerance against heat stress can also be achieved by over expression of the HSPs through genetic manipulations. A transgenic tobacco plant was produced by the transfer of MT-sHSP from tomato for better thermo-tolerance Sanmiya et al. Exogenous application of growth regulators and osmo-protectants at different growth stages can play an important role in inducing resistance against drought.
A very important and short-term approach in this regard is seed priming which is a pre-sowing hydration of the seed in such a way that the germination metabolism is initiated but the emergence of radicle is avoided Farooq et al. Seed priming has proved beneficial in improving the germination metabolism and early stand establishment of crops under normal and stress conditions Farooq et al.
An improved performance of some wheat cultivars was reported under drought conditions after priming with potassium chloride Eivazi, Priming of the wheat seeds with ascorbic acid resulted in improved drought resistance due to better accumulation of the proline which helped to maintain the tissue water content and membrane stability Farooq et al.
The priming of the maize seeds with putrescine improved the tissue water content and total biomass accumulation under both water limiting and well-watered conditions Hussain et al. Khan et al. A similar improvement in sunflower Helianthus annuus L. Seed priming with low concentration of allelopathic crop water extracts has also emerged as a beneficial tool to improve crop growth and yield under normal and stressful conditions Farooq et al.
Another important approach for inducing resistance in plant against abiotic stresses is the exogenous application of the growth regulators. The application of the growth regulators helps plants to maintain a fair water balance and chlorophyll content under drought. Foliar applied gibberellic acid improved the stomatal conductance, rate of transpiration, and net photosynthesis in cotton under water limiting conditions Kumar et al. Application of jasmonates in combination with brassinolides improved the drought tolerance of maize mainly due to better antioxidant defense Li et al.
A positive role of the brassinosteroids has been observed in inducing resistance against drought Rao et al. Brassinolides were also found useful in improving the germination and seedling growth of the sorghum under water limiting conditions Vardhini and Rao, The application of the brassinolides improved the performance of rice under drought and improved the CO 2 assimilation and leaf water economy Farooq et al.
Anjum et al. Application of salicylic acid improved the drought resistance in wheat by improving the activity of antioxidant enzyme catalase Horvath et al. ABA plays an important role in drought stress tolerance and the development of different ABA analogs for ABA receptors have advanced its use in drought stress tolerance Okamoto et al. Exogenous application of osmo-protectants has also been used effectively to improve drought resistance in plants Ashraf and Foolad, For instance, the application of glycine betaine can help plants in improving their performance under drought conditions Hussain et al.
It improves the stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, proline accumulation in plants Ma et al. Similarly, the application of spermidine has also been fond beneficial in minimizing the harmful effects of drought in barley Kubis, Moreover, the application of silicon improved drought tolerance by improving the water uptake in sorghum Hattori et al.
Other studies have also highlighted the potential of silicon application in improving the drought resistance in major crops including, wheat, rice, and sorghum mainly through improved root growth, stomatal conductance, photosynthetic rate, and antioxidant defense Lux et al. Relatively less research has been done in resistance induction against heat stress. However, the basic mechanism of using growth regulators, osmo-protectants, and other chemicals is same for drought and heat stress.
Preconditioning of plants has proved very effective to combat the heat stress. For instance, preconditioned tomato plants showed better performance under the heat stress by making better osmotic and stomatal adjustments Morales et al. The positive effect of calcium under thermal stress has been reported in certain cool season grasses as it maintains the antioxidant activity Jiang and Huang, It has been shown that the exogenous application of calcium can play important role in inducing heat stress resistance in plants by better activity of antioxidant defense Kolupaev et al.
Wahid and Shabbir reported that treatment of barley seeds with glycine betaine resulted in better performance under heat stress through improved membrane stability, photosynthetic rate, and leaf water status. Similarly, an improved performance of tomato plants under heat stress was observed by the application of spermidine Murkowski, Further research is needed to explore the potential of seed priming and foliar application of growth regulators in a wide range of crops under heat stress.
Moreover, the integrated approaches focusing the use of these techniques with genetic modifications may also be evaluated. Abiotic stresses are important constraint limiting the crop productivity worldwide. Plants show a wide range of responses to drought and heat stresses which are mostly depicted by a variety of alterations in the growth and morphology of plants.
Although drought and heat stress may cause negative effects on overall growth and development of the plants, the major phase being damaged is the reproductive growth.
A mild stress at anthesis or grain filling phase can substantially reduce the crop yield. Other noticeable effects of these stresses are damaged photosynthetic machinery, oxidative damage, and membrane instability. Plants ability to with stand these stresses greatly varies from species to species. Recently, major achievements have been made in minimizing the negative effects of these abiotic stresses either by adopting the genetic approaches or by inducing the stress resistance. Despite of the major advances in the genetic approaches such as QTL mapping and transgenic approaches there is still a big room for improvement.
For example, the genetic and environmental interactions are poorly understood. Similarly, QTLs identified for one background does not perform best under different other backgrounds. Similarly, issues are still present with the transgenic plants developed for combating with heat and drought stress. Most of the transgenic plants developed are not tested under field conditions therefore; their performance under the field conditions is yet a question mark.
The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.
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